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The TGF-beta 1 (Transforming growth factor beta) is the first member of a large group of proteins included in the TGF-beta superfamily. This superfamily includes the activin/inhibin family, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), growth differentiation factors (GDFs) and the TGF-beta subfamily. Members of the TGF-beta superfamily interact with cell surface protein kinase receptors to activate Smad …

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The Akt cascade works through receptor tyrosine kinases, integrins, B and T cell receptors, cytokine receptors, G protein coupled receptors and other stimuli that induce the production of phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5 triphosphates (PtdIns(3,4,5)P3) by phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). There are three highly related isoforms of Akt (Akt1, Akt2, and Akt3), being the major signaling arm of PI3K.